The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded in 1921, and Mao Zedong attended its first Congress, held that same year. Mao came from a wealthy peasant family and had studied and become a librarian. The party he joined was soon in conflict with the nationalist Guomindang (GMD), led by Jiang Jieshi.

After a massacre of Communists by the GMD in Shanghai, the Communists tried to start a peasant revolt in Hunan and then, in 1929, established the Jiangxi Soviet, which grew to over a million. Up to 700,000 people were killed in the Jiangxi Soviet, including many landlords who were seen as oppressors of the peasantry. Mao was an important leader in the CCP at this time, but not the only leader.

The GMD attacked the Jiangxi Soviet, leading the Communists to retreat on the Long March (1934-1935). A key moment during the Long March was the Zunyi Conference (1935), at which Mao became the leader of the Communist movement. Less than 10% of the 86,000 marchers survived and reached Yan’an. The Long March later became a key element of Chinese propaganda.

The beginning of the Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945) briefly reunited the GMD and the Communists. The US sent military and financial aid to the GMD, but its corrupt leaders failed to press aggressively to drive the Japanese back. However, the Communists fought hard and made significant gains against the Japanese; this earned the Communists support from the Chinese, who saw them as the true defenders of China. In 1945, Mao was named Chairman of the CCP.

When the war ended, the GMD and the Communists continued their civil war, and in 1949 the defeated GMD evacuated mainland China, occupying Taiwan, which became the Republic of China (ROC). From 1949 to 1954, China was under a government called the “Common Program”. Until 1952, there were still multiple political parties.

In 1950 the Agrarian Reform Law was passed, and land redistribution took place. As many as 300 million peasants received land, but 2 million landlords were killed. Furthermore the “Suppression of Counter-Revolutionaries” campaign led to the deaths of as many as a million Chinese who were deemed enemies of the people.

In 1950, China also occupied Tibet, beginning the process of crushing the culture and religion of Tibetan Buddhists. In 1954, China adopted a new constitution as a single-party state. To consolidate his power, Mao instituted a series of mass mobilizations in which up to 80% of the population participated. These government campaigns aimed at expelling foreigners, ex-members of the GMD, and spies as well as punishing members of the CCP who were accused of corruption. Private business owners who were suspected of misdeeds were also targeted.

Mao established a cult of personality, which was reinforced by propaganda. The 1956 Hundred Flowers Campaign briefly lifted government censorship allowing criticism of how China was being run, but was followed by a new wave of persecution. In 1964, the “Little Red Book”, a collection of Mao’s sayings, was published, and in 1966 the Cultural Revolution began. In its most intense phase (1966-1969), gangs of young Red Guards roamed China, attacking anyone they perceived as an enemy of the revolution. Victims included teachers, artists, writers, athletes, and business leaders, as well as leaders of the CCP. Anyone thought to be guilty of perpetuating the “Four Olds” — the customs of China before the Revolution — might be subjected to a struggle session in which he or she might be beaten and humiliated or killed.

By 1969, China was in chaos, and Mao ordered the PLA (the army) to disarm the Red Guards. Many of the former Red Guards were sent to the countryside to work and be re-educated. Slowly, order returned, but the Cultural Revolution did not end until Mao’s death in 1976. In China under Mao, 10s of millions were held prisoner in labor camps, where they suffered terrible treatment. In foreign policy, China and the USSR made a treaty in 1950 (Treaty of Friendship, and Alliance and Mutual Assistance), but they had a competitive relationship. By 1961, the Sino-Soviet split, a cessation of diplomatic relations, had begun.

During the Cold War, the US and China clashed in Korea and Vietnam, but by 1971, relations were thawing thanks to Ping Pong Diplomacy, as well as the move to replace Taiwan in the United Nations with the PRC. In 1972, Nixon visited China and met with Mao Zedong. Mao’s economic policies were inconsistent and often catastrophic. In the 1950s, China began to encourage peasants to form agricultural collectives, and by 1957, more than 90% of the land was being used collectively. But, the Great Leap Forward (1958-1962), took collectivization to a much more extreme level, forming communes of up to 20,000 households. The Chinese in each commune worked their land collectively, did some manufacturing, and had schooling and daycare for the children.

The effort to organize all production centrally failed as Chinese were inexperienced in this large-scale type of agriculture. The “Four Pests Campaign” was also part of the Great Leap Forward. It involved killing pests to promote health and agriculture. Unfortunately, sparrows were listed among the pests, and the effort to kill sparrows led to a plague of caterpillars that destroyed crops. Combined with flooding and a drought, this resulted in a famine and the deaths of up to 50 million Chinese.

At the Lushan Conference (1959), Peng Dehuai, a famous general, dared to criticize Mao’s plans; he was removed and imprisoned until his death. In industry, the Chinese initially benefited from Soviet assistance. They adopted a 5-year-plan in 1952, and focused on heavy industry and infrastructure. Cities expanded rapidly during this time. In the Great Leap Forward, however, Mao encouraged individual Chinese citizens to produce steel; vast quantities were manufactured, and most of it was useless. There were also huge declines in manufacturing and industry.

After the Great Leap Forward, it took years for Chinese industry and agriculture to recover. However, the Cultural Revolution again threw China into chaos, and the economy once more went into decline. Education was a major focus of Mao’s government; schools formed centers of indoctrination. But, the literacy rate rose from 10% in 1949 to 70% by 1976. Children were also required by most schools to join Communist youth groups.

Women benefited in some ways from the Communist takeover; footbinding was forbidden as were arranged marriages. Women had access to jobs that were formerly held by men, education, and divorce. In healthcare, China did not have the means to offer much to its people, but “barefoot doctors” — Chinese with a little medical training and a few supplies — offered some healthcare to rural Chinese (1968-1981). Better sanitation and cleaner water, as well as efforts to reduce diseases also began to reduce death rates.

China officially tolerated religion, but in fact religion was persecuted. Only “patriotic” churches (with no foreign ties and under the control of the state) were permitted. Ethnic groups were often persecuted as well, including Tibetans and Hui and Uighur Muslims. Traditional Chinese art was one of the “Four Olds.” Mao focused on propaganda art portraying well-fed, hard working peasants and industrial workers expressing devotion to the Revolution and to Mao. Through its decades of rule, Mao’s authoritarian state indoctrinated its people and impacted their lives more thoroughly than many other authoritarian governments.